MUS 104-01 Exploring World Music Cultures: Module 8-Music of India

Music of India (more properly, South Asia)

People, Culture, Language

 

The division of Indo-Iranian languages in the North and Dravidian languages in the South corresponds to the division of classical  musical style into Hindustani (Northern) and Carnatic (Southern).

Please watch this video lecture as you scroll further down.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jRF34RGnzoQ

 

All music is primarily vocal in character

• portamento
• complex ornaments
• Instruments aim to imitate the voice

 Music of the North

•  Art music tradition
• ­Highly trained musicians
• ­Music has a ‘concert’ audience; people who are connoisseurs
• Developed as a court tradition under the Mughal (Islamic) rule in the 16th through18th century

 

• The notes of the rag are called the swar.  This concept is similar to the Western solfege.
• There must also be a modal structure.  This is called that in North Indian music and mela in Carnatic music.
• There is also the jati.  Jati is the number of notes used in the rag.
• There must also be the ascending and descending structure--arohana /avarohana.
•  Some notes are important and others less so.  The two most important notes are called vadi and samavadi
• There are often characteristic movements to the rag.  This is called either pakad or swarup.
• Less important characteristics.  For instance rags have traditionally been attributed to particular times of the day. 

Tala/tal—Rhythm Cycle

• The word tal.  Tal literally means "clap".  Today, the tabla has replaced the clap in the performance, but the term still reflects the origin. 

Elements of Tal

• Tali - Tali is the pattern of clapping.  Each tal is characterized by a particular pattern and number of claps.
• Khali -Khali is the wave of the hands.  These have a characteristic relationship to the claps.
• Vibhag (Ang) - Vibhag is the measure.  Each clap or wave specifies a particular section or measure.  These measures may be of any number of beats, yet most commonly 2, 3, 4, or 5 beats are used.
• Matra - Matra is the beat.  It may be subdivided if required

 

 

TEENTAL

• CLAPPING/ WAVING ARRANGEMENT

CLAP, 2, 3, 4, CLAP, 2, 3, 4, WAVE, 2, 3, 4, CLAP, 2, 3, 4

• NUMBER OF BEATS --16
• THEKA   

 

• DADRA TAL

• CLAPPING/ WAVING ARRANGEMENT

CLAP, 2, 3, WAVE, 2, 3

• NUMBER OF BEATS--6
• THEKA 

 

 

KAHERVA TAL

• CLAPPING/ WAVING ARRANGEMENT

CLAP, 2, 3, 4, WAVE, 2, 3, 4

• NUMBER OF BEATS--8
• THEKA

 

RUPAK TAL

• CLAPPING/ WAVING ARRANGEMENT

WAVE, 2, 3, CLAP, 2, CLAP, 2

• NUMBER OF BEATS--7
• THEKA 

 

Rāga development—in Hindustani Music

Performance of Indian classical music generally follow the same format.

First an introduction sets the mood, both in vocal and instrumental music.

Alāp—free rhythm exposition of rāga---can be long or very short.

In longer renditions of instrumental music you also have the following two sections.

Jor—introduction of pulse into instrumental alāp, with more elaborate melodic development (optional)

Jhala-fast pulse (optional) with rapid strumming of strings.

You then have compositions upon which the performer will improvise in the raga framework.  

 in instrumental music is  called Gat­-composition in the rāga set in a specific tāla.

Tora—improvisational episodes that alternate with the gat.

Gats can be in slow, medium, or fast tempos.  In fast gats they can accelerate to a gat jhala

In vocal music the compositions are called bandish (literally, "closed" or "fixed") and as in instrumental music, progress from slow to fast compositions, although in abreviated performances a music may forego one or the other.

The following is an encapsulated performance  of the raga called Jog, by the great sitar virtuoso, the late Pandit (Master) Ravi Shankar.

http://youtube.com/watch?v=-lcB48oQq6s

The parts are as follows

• Alap 00:00
• Jor 6:24
• Jhala 11:20
• Gat/tora in slow teental  13:02
• Gat/tora in fast teental 23:36  ending with a gat jhala at 25:58

 

The following is a good introduction to the instruments of North India by the video blogger Anuna Kamat.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SgV6X3KenGA&t=452s

She gives examples from both North and South India.

Let's look at them in more detail.

Chordophones

Sitar--stringed instruments with frets and three different types of strings: melody, drone/rhythmic accentuation, and resonating.  The following video is of the legendary Pandit (maestro) Ravi Shankar, who did much to bring Indian classical music to the West.  He is accompanied on the tabla by Ustad (maestro) Allah Rakha.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZPkPTSS7OiI

Sarod--This is a stringed instrument without frets, but with a stainless steel finger board.  It is descended from an Afghan instrument with a wooden fingerboard called the rebab. This performance is by Ustad Amjad Ali Khan. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8DPrKw3PvmE&t=865s

Sarangi--a bowed instrument with three main playing strings, and about 40 resonating strings.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m_yMf_Ra9XM

Santoor--a type of hammer dulcimer, this instrument is common throughout much of the world in one form or other.  This version from Kashmir has about 100 strings.  It is struck with small wooden hammers. This performance is by Pandit Shivkumar Sharma. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_udbwA6uIA0

Aerophones

Bansuri--bamboo transverse flute, played here by Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3oSavdHwr5Q

Shehnai--double reed instrument, often associated with weddings, temples, Sufi shrines, or, long ago, military processions.  The players are primarily Muslim, which puts them in a liminal position with relation to Hindus, especially upper castes in temples. This video is by the great Ustad Bismillah Khan, who for years was temple shehnai player at the temple of Lord Vishwanath in Varanasi. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hveeMDC6Dro

Membranophones

Tabla--double drum that produces 22 different sounds. Different syllables , called bols, represent these sounds,  Here is a demonstration by Ustad Allah Rakha. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Joyk_EMtzn0

Pakhawaj--a double headed barrel-shaped drum, used to accompany older-style music.  Traditionally most instruments, especially drums were only played by men, but that is changing, as shown in this video. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCtlvAscQoc

Dholak--a folk drum, often played for light music.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ZWjalqDwKg

Dhol--a folk drum, played with sticks.  It is very loud, and associated with outdoor performances, and with dances like Punjabi bhangra.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0ofbn0jMC0

 

Carnatic classical music differs from Hindustani music in that it centers around lengthier fixed poetic/musical compositions called kriti.  Format of the kriti is:

Pallavi (refrain)

Anupallavi (first verse)

Pallavi (refrain)

Charanam (second verse)

Pallavi (refrain)

The texts are in the main literary languages of the South: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, as well as the liturgical language Sanskrit.  Unlike the short compositions of Hindustani vocal music which frequently anonymous, Carnatic music has known composers.  The three most notable are  Tyagaraja (1767-1847),  Mutuswami Dikshitar (1775-1835), and Shyama Shastri (1762 – 1827).

The following is an improvisation on a famous composition by Tyagaraja "Banturiti Koluviya Vayya Rama" (Take me as a guard in your court, oh Rama).https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fTGZEmn3BY4

Note that in addition to the two vocalists, there is:

• a barrel drum called the mridangam
•  a tambourine called kanjira
•  the Western violin, tuned in Indian fashion and played on the arm, instead of under the chin
• A stringed drone instrument call tanbura.

The vocal compositions can also be performed instrumentally. This a performance of a kriti on the Saraswati vina.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jM9b2Qo5qwM

 

Music is integral all the major religious groups in South Asia.  

Hinduism: The oldest religious music of Hinduism is the chanting of the scriptures known as the Vedas.  These four collections of hymns, poems, and other texts, most of which are chanted to specific melodies.  They have been passed down orally within the priest class known as Brahmins through complex techniques to insure that nothing is forgotten or altered. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qPcasmn0cRU&t=132s

Starting in the Middle Ages, the domination of the priestly Brahmin caste was challenged by democratic sects centering around devotional worship (Bhakti) directed to one supreme deity, usually Vishnu (especially in his incarnations as Rama and Krishna) or Shiva, by whose grace salvation may be attained by all regardless of sex, caste, or class. It is practiced by the majority of Hindus today.  One of the major devotional genres is known as Bhajan   These are traditionally sung in groups, with a calm, relaxed vocal delivery.  One example that is attributed to a late Medieval saint is "Vaishnav janato," which was one of the favorite songs of Mahatma Gandhi.   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rbvww26oMQ4

Sikhism:   Songs similar to Hindu bhajans are sung in Sikh gurudwaras (temples).  They are know as Shabd Gurbani, and are sung in Punjabi language:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I1xAOXx1l2Q

Islam: In Islam, strictly speaking, recitation of the Quran is not considered to be music.  The mystical sects of Sufism have been expressing themselves through music and dance since medieval times, and these styles of music and devotional philosophy have been influential throughout South Asia.  One of the most notable Sufi genres is Qawwali.  To quote Wikipedia, 

A group of qawwali musicians, called a party (or Humnawa in Urdu), typically consists of eight or nine men including a lead singer, one or two side singers, one or two harmoniums (which may be played by the lead singer, side singer or someone else), and percussion. If there is only one percussionist, he plays the tabla and dholak, usually the tabla with the dominant hand and the dholak with the other one (i.e. a left-handed percussionist would play the tabla with his left hand). Often there will be two percussionists, in which case one might play the tabla and the other the dholak. There is also a chorus of four or five men who repeat key verses, and who aid percussion by hand-clapping.

The performers sit cross-legged on the ground in two rows — the lead singer, side singers and harmonium players in the front row, and the chorus and percussionists in the back row.

Before the fairly recent introduction of the harmonium, qawwalis were usually accompanied by the sarangi. The sarangi had to be retuned between songs; the harmonium didn't, and was soon preferred.

Women used to be excluded from traditional Muslim music, since they are traditionally prohibited from singing in the presence of men. These traditions have changed, however, as is evident by the popularity (and acceptance) of female singers such as Abida Parveen. However, qawwali has remained an exclusively male business. There are still no mainstream female qawwals. Although Abida Parveen performs many songs that are in the traditional qawwali repertoire, she does not perform them in the traditional qawwali style. Typically missing is the chorus which repeats key verses, as well as the handclapping.

Examples of famous qawwali singers are:

Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ojIHZqvJpV0

The Sabri Brothers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HhOIEuOyeQ4

The following is one of the most famous qawawalis "Dam dam mast qalandar"  praising "Syed Usman Marwandi^[3] (1177 – 1274), popularly known as Lal Shahbaz Qalandar (Sindhi: لعل شھباز قلندر‎), who was a Sufi saint and religious-poet of present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan.^[1] He is highly regarded and respected by people of all religions because he preached religious tolerance among Muslims and Hindus.^[1][2] He was called Lal ("ruby-colored") after his usual red attire and "Shahbaz" to denote a noble and divine spirit and "Qalandar" as he was a wandering holy man.^[1] The spiritual song "Dama Dam Mast Qalandar" glorifies Lal Shahbaz Qalandar's teachings, and the song is widely used in Pakistan, India, Afghanistan and Bangladesh. Originally written in the 13th century, the song has been sung by various singers since then, and is widely popular in the sub-continent."[Wikipedia].

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OuMNuhpXnc0

In this video, we see  Rahat Fateh Ali Khan, nephew  of Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and Amjad Sabri of the famous Sabri family perform a popular style of qawwali for the famous Coke Studios music program out of Karachi, Pakistan.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uks8psEpmB4 

Sufism, and especially qawwali are considered to be heretical by Muslim fundamentalist groups such as the Wahabbi, Salafi, and the Taliban. Sufis and Sufi shrines have been frequently attacked. Sadly,  Amjad Sabri was assassinated in Karachi by the Pakistani Taliban in 2016.  Music is often viewed as political.

Popular music in South Asia has a number of roots. One source is the genre known as ghazal, which are lyric songs, usually in Urdu. In South Asia, these were notably province of courtesans known as tawaif. Courtesans are NOT primarily sex workers, but are more analogous to escorts in modern Western society, or the geisha of Japan.  They were highly educated women, skilled in singing, dancing, poetry, and witty conversation.  They were attendant in the (primarily Muslim) aristocratic courts of North India, especially prior to the British conquests, but continuing even after.  They also founded independent salons, run by women of note, surrounded by family and apprentices: the males functioned as instrumentalist to accompany singing and dancing.  The women did not usual marry, but were free to take lovers, usually rich patrons with whom they would have children.  This arrangement was outside of the normal patriarchal control of women in South Asian society, but was an accepted niche.  The Victorian British disapproved of such arrangements, and the aspiring Indian middle class copied these values in order to push for independence. Various so-called anti-nautch (anti dancer) laws were passed that slowly restricted and disempowered these women, reducing many to poverty and/or prostitution. The following is a good in-depth discussion of this issue: http://www.chandrakantha.com/articles/tawaif/

 One of the most famous ghazal singers of the 20th Century was the Indian singer Begum Akhtar.  Here one example with translation in the notes:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B6noCddu-7g

Here is a fictionalized depiction from the 1994 Merchant-Ivory film "In Custody" in which a modern tawaif (married to a melancholy Urdu poet) generates income for the family by basically flirting with the entire room. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0WObLnPUTds .  Note, that throwing money to performers is a common traditional practice (as seen earlier from the video of the qawwali performance by the Sabri Brothers), denoting sensual and/or spiritual enthusiasm. 

---------------------

Against the background of late-19th and early 20th Century nationalism and transformation of views on women, secular musical theater arose in Bombay under the patronage of rich Parsi industrialists. Parsis, followers of the ancient Persian religion Zoroastrianism, had fled to the Bombay area after the Muslim conquest of Persia over a thousand years ago, and became successful traders, financiers, and industrialist (many of you have heard of Tata Industries).  Parsi theater unlike traditional theater allowed women to perform without generally being viewed as disreputable. 

With the advent of motion pictures, this genre was transformed, initially with silent films accompanied by live music in theaters--just as in the West.  With the advent of sound technology in 1931, Initially, the actors would sing songs and be recorded as part of the filming--just as if it were a musical play.  One of the notable early stars was K. L. Saigal, shown in this clip: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-sWo9fkWdRY

As production values became slicker, and movie making became big business, the trend moved to having beautiful looking actors/actresses lipsynching, while famous singers provided the vocals.  These were known as playback singers, and were literally a handful of men and women, cultivating a smooth singing style--in the case of the women, high and childlike.  Among the most notable for the 1940s-80s were Lata Mangeshkar, her sister Asha Bhosle, and Mohammed Rafi, each credited with having recorded tens of thousands of songs.

The following is one of Lata Mangeshkar's hits from the 1960 "Lag Ja Gale" (Embrace me)