MUS 104-01 Exploring World Music Cultures: Module 4-Musics of Sub-Saharan Africa

THE MUSIC OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

 

Sub-Saharan Africa maintains enormous linguistic, cultural, and musical diversity, where oral traditions are the means of passing culture rather than literary traditions. Africa is approached from an anthropological perspective, from which we explore the relationship between music and the kinds of culture that produce it.

 

Outline

 

A Shona Mbira Performance in Zimbabwe

• Shona –– a Bantu-speaking people of Zimbabwe in southeast Africa
• Bira –– a Shona religious ceremony involving spirit possession
• Mbira –– a musical instrument, a lamellaphone, of the idiophone type, has 22 keys (tongues)
• Lamellaphone –– an instrument, the sound of which is produced by tuned metal or reed tongues set on a bridge mounted to a soundboard or box, plucked by the player’s alternating fingers

 

The Pygmies

• Pygmies –– nomadic hunters and gathers of equatorial Africa
• BaMbuti –– a Pygmy people of the Ituri forest in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo Pygmies have few instruments due to their nomadic existence. They use vocal choirs, flute duets, trumpets made from tree bark or ivory, and the musical bow.

 

The Mande of West Africa

• Mande –– a subgroup of the Mandinka people of Senegal and Gambia
• Jali –– a hereditary professional musician in Mande society, who serves as an oral historian and singer/performer (plural: jalolu)
• Kora –– a twenty-one-string bridge-harp, with a large gourd sound chamber, played by Mande jalolu

 

The Ewe of Ghana

• Anlo-Ewe –– a group of people in Ghana and Togo, socially distinct from other Ewe
• Club organizations maintain semiprofessional drum and dance troupes.

 

Popular Music in the Twentieth Century

• West African highlife brass bands
• Jùjú –– A form of Nigerian popular music associated with the Yoruba that combines electric instruments with indigenous drums and percussion
• Chimurenga –– a Shona popular music, meaning "liberation", influenced by West Indian Calypso and the Shona mbira style, played with electric guitar and other instruments
• Isicathamiya-- a South African Zulu choral style,performed by groups of men, popular since the 1930s, influenced by Anglican church hymns and native vocal styles.
• Bambara popular styles from Mali, influenced by Jali kora and guimbry music.

 

 

 

 

Despite the diversity, a few underlying principles characterize the music of the whole region.

 

General Principles of African Music:

Interlocking is the practice of fitting pitches into spaces between other parts, alternating pitches or phrases of one part with those of another to create a whole part. An example is the whole melody created by a mbira player’’s two hands.

 

Call and response is the alternation or interlocking of leader and chorus, or of a vocal and instrumental part. Hocket is the interlocking pitches between two or more sound sources to create a single melody or part. An example is Pygmy vocal music.

 

Dense, overlapping textures and buzzy timbres manifested in a preference for overlapping drum and percussion rhythms. An example is Ewe drumming. Wind and string instruments incorporate percussive elements: strings are more often plucked than bowed and wind instruments are often played with a breathy sound quality. An example of a percussive string sound is the kora.

 

Cyclical and open-ended forms involving one or more repeated melodies/rhythmic patterns (ostinatos) as the basic foundation of a performance.

 

Ostinato is a repeated melodic or rhythmic pattern that forms the basic foundation of a piece or musical section (sometimes called “melorhythm” or “ensemble thematic cycle”).

 

Community participation. The participation of non-specialists is facilitated by long performances with much repetition and by the close association of music with dance.

 

Importance of rhythmic complexity. This can occur at many levels: juxtaposition of duple and triple patterns (hemiola), multiple layering of different rhythmic patterns, and interaction between core foundation and varied/improvised elaboration parts.

" The Shona are a Bantu-speaking people of Zimbabwe in southeastern Africa. They have a variety of lamellaphones, each with their own distinct scale patterns and playing techniques. The mbira, a lamellaphone, is played at bira ceremonies for ancestral spirits. A bira is a family sponsored event wherein the ancestors interact with the living. The mbira music attracts a spirit, for spirits enjoyed this music during their lives. A spirit medium becomes possessed by the spirit, and the family consults the ancestor about personal problems. A musical performance involves one or more mbira in interlock, with singing involving a low syllabic bass style, a high melodic style using falsetto singing and yodeling, and ancient poetry recitation" (Nettl).

 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OXBQbn6wZeQ

The instrument, mbira, roughly translates as "of the Bira ceremony." 

A famous mbira piece "Nhemamusasa" (Gathering branches) is played by two fathers and their sons.  There are many layers here:

• The steady rhythm of the gourd rattles known as hosho
• The steady ostinato of the two young men playing mbira
• The variations and improvisation played by the elder mbira player
• The solo sung by the elder mbira player
• The steady response sung by the young men

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eDdVjeAqY5M

"This same piece (for 22-key mbira dzavadzimu, hosho, and singer) appears on The Soul of Mbira (Nonesuch H-72054; reissued on compact disc). In the Nonesuch version recorded by the leading mbira scholar Paul Berliner, the singer employs three singing styles: mahonyera (a low, syllabic bass style), huro (a high melodic style that includes some yodeling), and kudeketera (Shona poetry). The basic ostinato of an mbira piece is made up of a small number of short interlocking segments or phrases that are repeated in sequence. The two hands interlock to create a single melody. As the piece progresses, small variations (including traditional formulas and improvised lines) are introduced. Usually each variation is repeated several times before a new one is introduced. Gradual, subtle change is preferred to dramatic contrast; the latter is the sign of an unskilled, impatient player. When two players are present, they play complementary parts that interlock to create a whole. One part is called kushaura (“to lead”); the other is called kutsinhira (“to follow”)." (Nettl).

 

 

The Pygmies

 

Pygmies are nomadic, semi-autonomous hunter-gatherers of equatorial rainforest areas. Communalism is a way of life because survival depends on cooperation. The key values of their society–– egalitarianism, consensus, and unity––are reflected in their musical culture. Performance is a non- specialist activity, centered on vocal music (everyone can sing) and involving the whole community. In musical terms, there is an emphasis on ostinato, interlocking parts (using hocket technique in which singers alternate short melodic fragments to create a melody), and call-and-response forms.

 

Listening Example

 

BaMbuti vocal music: “Alima Girls’’ Initiation Music.” 

 

This recording is from the disc Pygmies of the Ituri Forest (Folkways FE 4457) and includes snatches of solo and chorus, but mainly demonstrates hocket, where each singer is responsible for one note and hoots it at the appropriate moment. Ringing rhythm sticks, softer split sticks, and handclaps provide a complex rhythmic accompaniment. There are many other recordings of Pygmy music. All of the tracks are short; it is easy to find examples that demonstrate solo-chorus, hocket, and/or hemiola

rhythmic patterns. 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sa4o5n-xLjk

According to Wikipedia

Mandé is a family of ethnic groups in Africa who speak any of the many related Mande languages of the region. Various Mandé groups are found in Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Chad, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal and Sierra Leone. The Mandé languages are divided into two primary groups: East Mandé and West Mandé.

The Maninka (also known as Malinke), a branch of the Mandé, are credited with the founding of the largest ancient African empires. Other numerous Mandé groups include the Soninke, Bambara, and Dyula. Smaller groups include the Ligbi, Vai, and Bissa.

The great medieval African empires of Ghana, Songhai, and Mali were founded by Mande peoples.  Their societies have a high degree of hierarchy, and include many specialists, such as artisans and artists, including musicians.  Many of the later were traditionally considered to be lowly or unclean, and did not intermarry with other members of society.  The professional musicians known as jeli ( plural jalolu), were also known as storytellers and keepers of oral history, and would be seated next to the rulers to inform and advise them.  They would often perform praise songs for dignitaries, often describing their accomplishment and ancestry. This combination of low status, but filling important roles in society is an example of liminality, in that they are neither totally in one state or the other.  

 

The music plays a group of repeating melodic patterns, known as an ostinato.  The singer then sings against these, and intersperses instrumental solos as well. This sort of format is known as core-and-excursion.

 

According to Nettl, et al,

Ala l’’a ke.” (Originally from Kora Manding: Mandinka Music of the Gambia.

Ethnodisc ER 12102, A/3. Recorded by Roderic Knight.) Textbook CD 2, track 13.

 

According to Roderic Knight’’s liner notes, this is one of the best-known kora songs. The title literally means, “God has done it.” It commemorates the settlement of a quarrel between two brothers over the right to the chieftainship of Fuladu after their father died in the early days of colonial rule. The younger brother usurped the throne and had his brother punished when he thought his life was threatened. This brought attention to the usurper and the British governor installed the rightful heir. Instead of punishing his younger brother, the new chief only asked for an apology, saying that it was God’s deed.

 

In the textbook, Turino reproduces part of the song text and shows how the different sections (kumbengo, donkilo, birimintingo, and sataro) are arranged. Many of the general characteristics of African music discussed above are illustrated in this example. Note especially the buzzing metal jangles attached to the instrument.

 

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eGtVjKgx4vw

Drum ensembles of the Ewe people of Ghana are examples of community music making.  With urbanization, people coming from specific villages will often form social clubs with activities like music and dance.  The Atsia or Atsia Bekor is a warrior's dance.

Explanation of polyrhythms by Master Drummer C. K. Ladzekpo

Part 1-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yK42w0H8rSU

Part 2-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2xhdMejbTiQ

Part 3-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ssTzlcgEv9E

Part 4-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eIZDYjNQGYE

Components of the Atsia ostinatos and polyrhythms

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t1x4JTmhayI

The Atsia Dance

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8_lLD7aKFls

 

According to Wikipedia

The Yoruba people (Yoruba: Ìran Yorùbá, lit. 'Yoruba lineage'; also known as Àwon omo Yorùbá, lit. 'Children of Yoruba', or simply as the Yoruba) are an ethnic group of southwestern and north-central Nigeria, as well as southern and central Benin. Together, these regions are known as Yorubaland. The Yoruba constitute over 40 million people in total. The majority of this population is from Nigeria, and the Yoruba make up 21% of the country's population, according to the CIA World Factbook,^[1] making them one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa. The majority of the Yoruba speak the Yoruba language, which is tonal, and is the Niger-Congo language with the largest number of native speakers.^[9]

This tonal quality in many of the Niger-Congo languages allows for traditional musicians to use various instruments to echo the tonal patterns of  well-known statements honoring dignitaries. In this sense it mirrors the hierarchical structure of Mande society.

Greetings and Praises Performed on the Yoruba Dùndún Drum. T 

This excerpt illustrates how the dùndún is used as a “talking drum.” The drummer first plays a pattern, and then another drummer recites the corresponding verbal phrase. Included are common greetings like “Good morning” as well as brief praises that would have been played in honor of a chief. The dùndún is an hour-glass shaped pressure drum; when the player squeezes and pulls the ropes that bind the heads on both ends of the drum, increased tension is created so that the pitch is raised; when the cords are relaxed, the tension lessens, and the pitch drops. (Nettl, et al.) 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0YvzgiDy4w

 

 

Urban popular music traditions have sprung up all over Africa. Local input mixed with Western elements (brass instruments, electric guitars, basic harmony, etc.) and Latin American rhythms give each style a unique sound.

 

West Africa

 

Highlife:

A form of brass band music originating in Ghana that developed from the local Akan people performing local music on brass instruments with traditional percussion instruments. It further developed into dance band music with a Cuban rumba style. Here is a compilation of classic Highlife.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-dA9S-7xIvc&t=78s

Palm wine music:

Originating in the 1950's  Palm wine music is played on acoustic guitar accompanied by various percussion instruments, this urban working-class style served as a basis for juju music.

This example is by the Koo Nimo Palmwine Quartet.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xXhmiQt4oy4

 

Juju:

Mixes electric guitars and amplified vocals with a large percussion section that includes sekere (rattle) and an hourglass-shaped talking drum. Pedal steel guitar and synthesizers are recent additions. Combines the traditional function of praise singing with social dance-drumming. Although Western harmonies are used, juju is organized around a series of interlocking ostinato parts (played by guitars and drums) and call-and-response singing. Key performers: Ebenezer Obey, King Sunny Ade.

 

I.K. Dairo was a major juju star of the 1960s. At the height of popularity, his group, The Blue Spots, included nine members and instrumentation typical of bands at that time: guitar, talking drum, bongos, conga-like drums, claves, maracas, and agogo (double-bell); Dairo also atypically performed single-row button accordion sometimes instead of guitar.

 

Listening Example

 

I.K. Dairo and The Blue Spots, “Salome.” Recorded in Lagos, 1962. 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gpXJRP3lCbY

According to Nettl, et al.

After an accordion introduction, Dairo sings the text followed by a brief accordion solo (section A). The accordion then drops out for a new section (B). This section involves a percussion break in which the talking drum takes the lead playing verbal phrases that a unison vocal chorus repeats. At approximately 1:39, the talking drummer plays a short vocal phrase that is immediately repeated by the chorus in call-and-response (X2), making the melodic (speech-song-like) quality of the talking drum particularly apparent. The B section ends with a bongo solo. Shortened accordion introduction and vocal material from the A section then comes back to conclude the piece creating an overall A B A’’ structure. In addition to the combination of Yoruba and Cuban instruments, the piece incorporates the “clave” rhythmic pattern of the Cuban son (played by the “rhythm sticks,”  which has influenced cosmopolitan musics around the world. The text itself illustrates a combination of Yoruba and cosmopolitan elements: much of the text that Dairo sings falls squarely within the style of pop love songs; the texts drummed and sung in Section B, however, include Yoruba proverbs.

It should be noted that much of the text praises the woman Salomé, saying how she is the mother of so-and-so.  

 

 

South Africa

 

Syncretic choral styles (e.g., mbube, bombing, and isicathamiya) developed amid the dismal living conditions of rural African migrants who worked in cities and mines. These genres, which blended Western harmonies taught by missionaries with slow Zulu choral music characterized by multiple overlapping ostinatos, have been popularized on an international scale by groups such as Ladysmith Black Mambazo.

One of the most famous pieces of the isicathamiya (stalking) is "Mbube" otherwise know as "Wimoweh" or "The Lion Sleeps Tonights".

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qwevEAaZ3w

Note the overlapping ostinatos and the solo as an example of core-and-excursion composition.

The original was composed in the 1920s by Solomon Linda and the Evening Birds, recorded here in 1939

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mrrQT4WkbNE

It was subsequently adopted by various white groups and popularized world wide in the 1950s.

Here is an example the famous group the Weavers

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=77VUYPVMtWY

Here is another example by the group Star King Brothers.  Note the choreography that is part of the performance style.  It is often in imitation of a lion's posture (mbube is lion in Zulu) or "stalking" (isicathamiya). Here are the Zulu lyrics and translation from a Facebook site.  The lyrics praise national figures in the struggle against apartheid.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hfPoXIwuWAQ

King Star Brothers - "Babili Bathathu"

Two of them three

Two or three who would look like these guys

Two or three (like him)

For (the guys like this man)

Father Mandela (father Mandela)

(The hero of the legends)

Two or three (like him)

Two or three (Boys like this man)

Buthelezi's father (father Buthehelezi)

(The hero of the legends)

Hero with hero (no, no, no, halala)

Wow two of them (congratulations)

Madiba's guy (Madoba's guy)

(The hero of the legends)

Hero with hero (no, no, no, halala)

Hero of legends (congratulations)

How will wemfo shenge (wemfo will be shenge)

(The hero of the legends)

And you Madlanduna (and you Lord Luthuli)

Because father Luthuli we are complaining about you (congratulations to where you are sleeping, hero of heroes)

And you bab' Dube (and you Mavukuzela, we congratulate you where you are sleeping, hero of heroes)

And you sobukwe (and you so sobukwe)

Nawe Sobukwe (congratulations where you are sleeping, hero of heroes)

And you Steve Biko (and you Steve Biko)

Because we are talking about heroes here (congratulations where you are sleeping, hero of hero)

And you father Sisulu

And you Oliver Tambo

And you Chris Hani

All of you are hero's

Nawe Holomisa

 

In addition to vocal traditions, urban Black South African instrumental genres––such as “township jive” or mbaq’anga––blend electric guitars, bass, and trap set with accordions, violins, and penny whistles.

 

Zimbabwe

As Nettl, et al note

Zimbabwean guitar bands began to play local Shona music, including dance-drumming genres, mbira-based songs, and jit, in response to the social climate of the time. This original “neoindigenous” Zimbabwean guitar style continued to be refined throughout the 1980s. Thomas Mapfumo’s music is an example of the blending of indigenous African and cosmopolitan-popular musical elements. Mapfuno began his professional career in the 1960s playing cover versions of English and American rock and soul music, as well as some Shona village songs. Classical mbira pieces like “Nhemamusasa” are used as the basis for some of Mapfumo’’s pieces. Electric guitars might play the basic four-phrase kushaura ostinato as well as melodic lines that would be on the higher mbira keys; the electric bass plays the part of the lower mbira keys of the kushaura. In recent recordings, according to Mapfumo, the keyboard often plays the kutsinhira mbira part, and the mbiras divide these parts as they normally would. The drummer plays a rhythm on the high-hat that sounds like the hosho (gourd shakers) used to accompany the mbira, and Shona hand-clapping patterns and an actual hosho are also added. Mapfumo sings in Shona village style including the high, yodeling technique and low-pitched singing of vocables; he also sings traditional lyrics as well as texts of his own composition.

 

Listening Example

 

“Chitima Ndikature”   Performed by Thomas Mapfumo and The Blacks Unlimited 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rEhvW035LQ8&pp=ygUgY2hpdGltYSBuZGl0YWt1cmUgdGhvbWFzIG1hcGZ1bW8%3D

As Nettl et al note

This track is an example of Mapfumo’’s mature style, which features one electrified mbira (bottle caps removed) along with electric guitar, keyboards, bass, drums, hosho, and congas along with two female vocalists. This piece is based in the classical mbira repertory using a 48-beat cycle (four 12-beat phrases) and is related to the “Nymaropa tune family.” Mapfumo uses indigenous Shona vocal techniques such as the singing of vocables with the lower lines of the mbira part. The allusive imagery of the sung poetry and its mosaic quality are also typical of indigenous Shona songs.

For reference purposes, here is an example of a traditional version of the piece.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jmGz2mWxgkQ

And here are another couple of contemporary Chimurenga versions

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MuqK9OEEhYU
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dUwNK_9y3uc

Mali

Malian popular music styles are inspired by the kora and its use of interlocking ostinati (plural of ostinato). This is often combined with pentatonic scales which were the ancestor of the North American blues scales. One famous example was Ali Ibrahim " Ali Farka " Touré (31 October 1939 – 6 March 2006),  a Malian singer and multi-instrumentalist, and one of the African continent's most internationally renowned musicians. His music blends traditional Malian music and its derivative, North American blues.  (Wikipedia)  He coined the phrase Bambara Blues to describe his style.  In the following example, "Heygana,"  we hear a blues-like pentatonic scale in the guitar and vocals, against an ostinato in the bass.  Unlike Northa American blues, there are no chord changes alone the lines of the 12-bar blues form (eg, C--F-C-G-F-C).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OgNFwXC4I6M

Continuing in this trend of substituting guitar for kora, and breaking gender norms, the singer/guitarist/songwriter Rokia Traore has been active on the world stage for over twenty years.  The following piece, "Ka Moun Ké"  (What I can do?).  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UNK0T_F31_k

Below are the Bambara lyrics and English translation  (https://lyricstranslate.com/en/ka-moun-k%C3%A8-what-can-i-do.html).

Ka Moun Kè Ah… Ka moun kè N’diyaniè mô n’ka moun di ma Ah… Ka moun di N’diyaniè mô n’ka moun ki yé Diyaniè mana wara nia dô ma Mô yé kèla djon lédi n’fa Ka moun kè   I doussouda i yé yèlèn yé n’kanou I doussouda i yé ma foulè   Waraba na la farinia o yé lamara la dô lé fé Sabadjoukouman bè wouladjan kônô o fènè na mara ba Mô kèla nia o nia ma Djon bè ni dianièbâ Wa tinia la nia o nia ma An bè nan mara bâ   Ah… Ka moun kè N’diyaniè mô n’ka moun di ma Ah… Ka moun di N’diyaniè mô n’ka moun ki yé Diyaniè mana wara nia dô ma Mô yé kèla djon lédi n’fa Ka moun kè   I doussouda i yèlèn yé n’kanou I doussouda yé ma foulè   Bourén sanou dô bê né bolo Baba m’bodima An bè wo kè bolokan nèkè yé I yo dow néki yé Wôri moukou mî’n bi bolola O dow mobili léla Ko di dénou Mama ma Mama ni Bamako gongon mankan   Ah… Ka moun kè i yé N’diyaniè mô n’ka moun di ma Ah… Ka moun di N’diyaniè mô n’ka moun ki yé Diyaniè mana wara nia dô ma Mô yé kèla djon lédi n’fa Ka moun kè   I doussouda i yèlèn yé n’kanou I doussouda yé ma foulè   Bazin dô bè né bolo Baba m’bo di ma An yé wô kalan Niaréla Check Fall yôrô I bo dow né ki yé Wori moukou mîn bi bolo banki I yo dow villa léla Ko di dén nou Mama ma Môkô ladowbaka ni bolo hèrè kakan   Ah… Ka moun kè i yé N’diyaniè mô n’ka moun di ma Ah… Ka moun di N’diyaniè mô n’ka moun ki yé Diyaniè mana wara nia dô ma Mô yé kèla djon lédi n’fa Ka moun kè   Né yé djon di Né yé wolofa niouman ka djon di Ko né yé djon di Né dé yé woloba niouman ka djon di   Né yé djon di Né yé n’wolo dé ni ka djon di   Né yé djon di Né dé yé fouroukè niouman ka djon di O fènè dé yé né ka djon di Sikinion niouman ka djon lé di Balima niouman ka djon lé né di   Ah… Ka moun kè i yé N’diyaniè mô n’ka moun di ma Ah… Ka moun di N’diyaniè mô n’ka moun ki yé Diyaniè mana wara nia dô ma Mô yé kèla djon lédi n’fa Ka moun kè https://lyricstranslate.com

What Can I Do? What can I do? What can I do for you my love? What do you desire, what do you want from me? The affection I feel for you is deep All pleasure, without measure What can I do to enchant you? What can I do?   You know? Just the glow of joy in your eyes And my life becomes wondrous!   There’s hardly a lion that’s truly invicible, Even the worst of snakes can be tamed It matters little who we are, to each their sister soul It matters little what we are, to each the person they love   What can I do? What can I do for you my love? What do you desire, what do you want from me? The affection I feel for you is deep All pleasure, without measure What can I do to enchant you? What can I do?   You know? Even just a smile on your face And life becomes full of wonder!   All the pure gold in Bouré 1, preciously guarded All that Bouré gold belongs to you, Baba! I’ll fashion it into a jewel for you to wear, Which I’ll take pleasure seeing about your person Because reciprocity consolidates love In turn, prove your affection to the Mama that I am By protecting me from the dust of Bamako Inside a fine automobile.   What can I do? What can I do for you my love? What do you desire, what do you want from me? The affection I feel for you is deep All pleasure, without measure What can I do to enchant you? What can I do?   You know? Even just a smile on your face And life becomes full of wonder!   The beautiful bazins2 that I own are yours Baba! Cheick Fall3, the tailor of Niaréla, Will transform them into beautiful clothes Which I’ll have the pleasure of contemplating on you Because I’m Mama to your children, night and day, Because I cherish you and adorn our love You’ll bear witness to me of your affection You’ll work with raw spirit and courage Of which only the belovèd man is capable We’ll build the house of our dreams We’ll fill it with love and happiness   What can I do? What can I do for you my love? What do you desire, what do you want from me? The affection I feel for you is deep All pleasure, without measure What can I do to enchant you? What can I do?   1.The ancient mines at Bouré were said to produce the purest gold in the days of the Mandé Empire. “The Gold of Bouré” has thus become axiomatic for the purest substance imaginable. 2.The richly coloured starched cloth used by Malians for their robes and headdresses 3.A famous tailor in Bamako, whose workshop is in Niaréla https://lyricstranslate.com