Music in Latin America is extremely diverse. Centuries of colonial interactions produced a range of hybrid cultures. European (predominantly Spanish,but in Brazil Portuguese) musical traits are incorporated with Native technology and expression. Folk versions of the violin and guitar are widespread, and the musical sound is distinctly mestizo. (Mestizos are Latin American people of mixed European and Native ancestry or culture.). Although in the past used as a racial category, it now more accurately denotes the variable incorporation of Iberian (Spanish and Portuguese) and indigenous cultural heritages.
In varying degrees the three main cultural threads in Latin American cultural including music are
Each cultural thread is characterized by the use of certain types of musical instruments, performance and compositional styles, music techniques, etc.
Indigenous (Pre-Columbian):
Instruments: Teponaztli and tunkul (slit drums), huehuetl (single-headed drum), siku (panpipes), flutes, such as kena (end-notched), pinkly (side-blown), and tarka (duct); and wakrapuku (conch shell trumpet)
Musical characterics: community oriented, "sound as one" aesthetic.
European:
Instruments: Diatonic harp; violin; Spanish guitar and local subtypes such as charango (Peruvian/Bolivian, small body, five groups of strings, and a round or flat back), vihuela (Mexican, small body, five strings, and a convex back), huapanguera (Mexican, eight strings in five courses), jarana (Mexican, small body, five strings), guitarrón (Mexican, large four or five string bass guitar with a round back), cuatro (Venezuelan, small body, four strings), tiple (Colombian, four courses of three strings each) and viola (Brazilian, five strings in double courses); and accordion (piano and button), brass instruments.
Musical characteristics: Dance forms, strophic song form, use of chordal harmonies, singing in parallel thirds or sixths, percussive stamping/tapping dance (zapateado).
African:
Instruments: Marimba (southern Mexico and Central America) drums, percussion instruments, musical bow, and lamellaphone.
Musical characteristics: Ostinato, hemiola/sesquialtera, interlocking parts, poly-rhythms.
The general category of Mestizo encompasses all three cultural threads in varying degrees and can be characterized by the use of the of the following uses of instruments and musical features
Native languages,iInstruments and genres
African American musical values
Brazil is slightly smaller than the US, about half the size of Russia; about three-tenths the size of Africa; about half the size of South America (or slightly larger than Brazil); slightly larger than China; more than twice the size of the European Union. Area > Land, 8.46 million sq km. Ranked 6th. 9.16 million sq km. Irs climate varies from tropical rain-forests, dry grasslands, mountains, and tropical coastal regions.
Brazil's population is very diverse, comprising many races and ethnic groups. In general, Brazilians trace their origins from five sources: Europeans, Native Americans, Africans, Levantines (Syria and Lebanon), and East Asia. Slightly less than half the population is classified as only having European ancestry, with a large number having African roots in varying degrees. The musics of the country vary from the indigenous, to European, to mixtures of Afro-, Euro-, and Native characteristics.
Afro-disaporic Culture and Religion
The North-East region of Brazil, on the Caribbean and Atlantic was the location of sugar plantations, the source of great wealth for the Portuguese aristocracy in the colonial period from roughly 1500 - 1880. About four million slaves were transported from Africa--about forty percent of the total Atlantic slave trade. Slavery was not abolished in Brazil until 1888.
In addition to Catholicism, various syncretic Afro-Brazilian relgions are practiced. These share features with other such religions as Vodoun, Santería, and Palo, which mix Catholicism with African religions, putting African deities in the place of saints.
Candomblé developed in a creolization of traditional Yoruba, Fon, and Bantu beliefs brought from West Africa by enslaved captives, According the Wikipedia article:
Candomblé is a polytheistic religion and worships a number of gods:
These deities are believed to have been created by a supreme God, Olodumare (called Zambi by the Kongo people; and Nana Buluku by the Fon people).The orishas and similar figures form a link between the spiritual world and the world of humans.
In both Candomblé and the related newer religion of Umbanda, there are a number of notable orixas/orishas or spirits/deities.
Main Orixás
Like Santería in the Caribbean or the Bira ceremony in Zimbabwe, one of the main practices involves spirit possession, with a person being "ridden" by one of the orixas. Like other such practice, drumming, singing, and dancing are an essential part of the process.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SnQfOXUFHws
Carnival and Samba
As in many regions in the world where Catholicism has been dominant, Carnival, the festival just before the penitent season of Lent, is popular with all segments of the population. In many places, this time of music, dancing, costumes, drinking and sexual license have been safety valves that have allowed the lower classes to blow off steam that might otherwise be directed towards the ruling classes that might be perceived as oppressive. In the modern era, Carnival and the music and dance associated with it have been adopted by the ruling classes, and given the status of a national symbol. This has served the purpose of allowing greater oversight on what is being sung and displayed, giving greater political control.
In the North-Eastern states of Bahía and Salvador, the population is predominantly African in heritage, with a great deal of cultural syncretism. African customs have been transformed by the Atlantic Crossing, evolving to suit the horrific conditions. One notable art to arise is capoeira, a mixture of maritial art, song, and dance, cultivated by slaves from Angola. The emphasis on footwork and tumbling reflects the conditions of having one's hands chained together.
The ceremony/contest is known as a roda (circle).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aiehFxUskEQ
One of the common instruments to accompany the activities is a musical bow with a gourd resonator known as the berimbau. It is tapped with a stick often attached to a rattle woven of reeds called caxixi (pronounced ca-shi-shi).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YM-fVED1tI0
These types of song and dance gathering evolved in a song and dance form known as samba, of which there various sub-genres, such as Baião and Batucada. Samba is known as a regional style, not just from the North-East, but the South-East as well, in São Paulo and Rio de Janiero.
The instrumental ensemble known batería is emblematic of Samba in general, and consists of:
Emigration of blacks and mixed-race people to the cities of the south led to the formation of hill-top slums known as favelas, which were the focus of Afro-Brazilian culture in places like Rio de Janeiro. Neighborhood samba groups would prepare elaborate costumes and song and dance routines for the Carnival parade. By the early 20th Century, samba had become popular as a national style, and was spread via mass media.
The first known recording was the 1917 "Pelo telefone" (Through the telephone) by Donga
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=60szh6ml-E0
By the 1930s, samba had spread and started to gain international fame with artists like Noel Rosa
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZXwe-mEJaAE&list=PL860284F66C6EFF9E&index=5
During the reign of dictator Getúlio Vargas (1930-1945), samba was encouraged, while at the same time monitored to suppress political opposition. Samba clubs known as blocos became prominent in this era, and were often pushing for increased civil rights for blacks.
On the international stage, samba became popular, in great part through the performances of Carmen Miranda ( born Maria do Carmo Miranda da Cunha (February 9, 1909 – August 5, 1955), who was a Portuguese-born Brazilian samba singer, dancer, Broadway actress, and film star popular from the 1930s to the 1950s. One of her signature songs was "Tico tico na fuba" (The sparrow is in the tapioca flour).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wFOogEdoQwo
Bossa Nova developed and popularized in the 1950s and 1960s and is today one of the best-known Brazilian music genres abroad. The phrase bossa nova means literally "new trend" or "new wave" A lyrical fusion of samba and jazz, bossa nova acquired a large following in the 1960s, initially among young musicians and college students. Much of it centered around the beach culture of Rio de Janeiro. One of the most notable songs of this era is "Girl from Ipanema" by Antônio Carlos Jobim (January 25, 1927 – December 8, 1994).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cOutEZqNDho
Bossa Nova gained world prominence with the Oscar-winning movie "Orfeu Negro"(Black Orpheus), a retelling of the Greek myth of Orpheus and Eurydice. You can watch the entire movie on the library's Kanopy database.
https://jjay.kanopystreaming.com/video/black-orpheus
Tropicália , also known as Tropicalismo is a Brazilian artistic movement that arose in the late 1960s. It encompassed art forms such as theatre, poetry, and music. The movement was characterized by a combination of the popular and the avant-garde, as well as a fusion of traditional Brazilian culture with foreign influences.
Today, Tropicália is chiefly associated with the musical faction of the movement, which merged Brazilian and African rhythms with rock and roll. Musicians who were part of the movement include Caetano Veloso, Gilberto Gil, Os Mutantes, Gal Costa, Tom Zé, and the poet/lyricist Torquato Neto, all of whom participated in the 1968 album Tropicália: ou Panis et Circencis, which served as a musical manifesto. (Wikipedia).
Examples: Gaetano Veloso: "Sorte" (Luck) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tVXwRjABmUA
Baden Powell and Vinicius de Moraes: canto de ossanha"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y3L7jwhjou4
This song is in effect a Candomblé hymn. The Portuguese words and translation are as follows:
CANTO DE OSSANHA De: Vinicius de Moraes e Baden Powell
O homem que diz "dou" não dá, porque quem dá mesmo não diz
O homem que diz "vou" não vai, porque quando foi já não quis
O homem que diz "sou" não é, porque quem é mesmo é "não sou"
O homem que diz "tô" não tá, porque ninguém tá quando quer
Coitado do homem que cai no canto de Ossanha, traidor
Coitado do homem que vai atrás de mandinga de amor
Vai, vai, vai, vai, não vou Vai, vai, vai, vai, não vou
Vai, vai, vai, vai, não vou Vai, vai, vai, vai, não vou
Que eu não sou ninguém de ir em conversa de esquecer
A tristeza de um amor que passou Não, eu só vou se for pra ver uma estrela aparecer
Na manhã de um novo amor Amigo senhor, saravá,
Xangô me mandou lhe dizer Se é canto de Ossanha, não vá, que muito vai se arrepender
Pergunte ao seu Orixá, o amor só é bom pra valer
Pergunte ao seu Orixá, o amor só é bom se doer
Vai, vai, vai, vai, amar Vai, vai, vai, sofrer Vai, vai, vai, vai, chorar
Vai, vai, vai, dizer Que eu não sou ninguém de ir em conversa de esquecer
A tristeza de um amor que passou
Não, eu só vou se for pra ver uma estrela aparecer
Na manhã de um novo amor
The man who says "give" does not give Because who gives even does not say The man who says "I will" will not Because when it was already did not want The man who says "I am" is not Because who is really is "I am not" The man who says "I'm not" is Because nobody is when you want Poor man who falls In the corner of Ossanha, traitor Poor man who goes Behind mandinga of love Go, go, go, go, I will not go Go, go, go, go, I will not go Go, go, go, go, I will not go Go, go, go, go, I will not go That I'm nobody to go In forgetting talk The sadness of a love that has passed No, I'm just going to go see A star appears In the morning of a new love Friend sir, saravá Xango told me to tell you If it's Ossanha's song, do not go. How much you will regret Ask your Orixá Love is only good if it hurts Ask your Orixá Love is only good if it hurts Go go go go Go go go go Go go go go cry Go go go say That I'm nobody to go In forgetting talk The sadness of a love that has passed No, I'm just going to go see A star appears
The Andes
The indigenous peoples of the Andes in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Chile value closely coordinated ensembles of woodwinds and drums.
The panpipe or siku is a series of cut reeds of graded sizes that produce a variety of notes when blown across the top (like you would a soda bottle).
Among the Aymara speakers of Peru and Bolivia, the siku is played large ensembles called sikuri, along with the large bombo drum. The melodies are formed by musicians alternating notes, back and forth, in a technique known as hocket (also practice by the Pygmies in Africa). The musicians try to blend together to form a uniform sound, like a large church organ.
The following example is of a group involved in eco-activism, aiming to protect the rare bird known as the suri. The dancers are dressed like the suri, and perform a drama about hunters and the endangered species.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ir2sIaMRrpg&t=2s
Huayno (Wayñu in Quechua) is a genre of popular Andean music and dance originally from the Andes highlands. It is especially common in Peru Bolivia and Ecuador, but also present in Chile and Argentina, and is practiced by a variety of ethnic groups, especially the Quechua people. The history of Huayno dates back to the colonial Peru as a combination of traditional rural folk music and popular urban dance music. High-pitched vocals are accompanied by a variety of instruments, including quena (flute), harp, siku (panpipe), accordion, saxophone, charango, lute, violin, guitar, and mandolin. Some elements of huayno originate in the music of the pre-Columbian Andes, especially on the territory of the former Inca Empire. Huayno utilizes a distinctive rhythm in which the first beat is stressed and followed by two short beats. (Wikipedia). This use of a rhythmic ostinato is considered by some scholars to be of African origin. That origin not withstanding, it is the archetypal mestizo genre in the Andes.
Notable examples: "Ojos Azules" by Manuel Casazola Huancco: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BoLZRaM2vfA
"El Condor Pasa" by Daniel Alomía Robles: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GSwu8-ohoWs
According to Torino in Nettl, et al. there are a number of related genres of dance song in Mexico that blend the various cultural threads.
Mestizo musical values and musical styles: Veracruz, Mexico
In Mexico, mestizo son styles have strong regional identities. Many of these styles may be heard in cities like Veracruz, performed by ambulantes (strolling musicians) who frequent local outdoor cafés. The son is a song-dance genre that combines 3/4 and 6/8 meters (both simultaneously and sequentially) and is played in a relatively fast tempo. Texts are often strophic, using coplas (four-line stanzas), instrumental introductions, interludes, and conclusions.
Associated with the rural southern coastal region of Veracruz. The main distinguishing features are the ensemble (voices, harp, and two guitar-type instruments called jarana and requinto), a recurring harmonic/rhythmic bass pattern (compas) that uses I, IV, and V chords, and solo-chorus vocals. Typically pieces begin with an instrumental introduction in which the harp starts alone, is joined by the plucked requinto, and finally by the strummed jarana.
Examples: The most famous throughout the world is “La Bamba” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XnQaICJlm5s
One version of the lyrics as done by Ritchie Valens and later Los Lobos
Para bailar la bamba
Para bailar la bamba se necesita una poca de gracia
Una poca de gracia pa' mi pa' ti y arriba y arriba
Ah y arriba y arriba por ti seré, por ti seré, por ti seré
Yo no soy marinero
Yo no soy marinero, soy capitán
Soy capitán, soy capitán
Bamba bamba
Bamba bamba
Bamba bamba
Bamba
Para bailar la bamba
Para bailar la bamba se necesita una poca de gracia
Una poca de gracia pa' mi pa' ti ah y arriba y arriba
This songs are danced in a percussive style called fandango or zapateado on a hollow wooden platform called tarima. In this performance of "La Bamba" note how there is a specific rhythmic pattern that the couples dance, each taking a turn on the limited space. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gl262_NL4v4
Other notable examples are "El Canelo" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qx9MwTaCpHA
One version of the lyrics
Donde vas Canelo, caramba! Por la madrugada
Donde vas Canelo, caramba! Por la madrugada
A cortar lechuga, Canelo, para ensalada
A cortar lechuga, Canelo, para ensalada
A la tripi-tripi caramba! tripa de cochino
A la tripi-tripi caramba! tripa de cochino
Mi mama no quiere, Canelo, que yo tome vino
Y si acaso tomo, Canelo, que sea de rufino
El amigo mono caramba! se cayo del palo
El amigo mono caramba! se cayo del palo
En el aire dijo, Canelo, "valgame San Pablo"
Y si no lo dices, Canelo, se lo lleva el diablo
A la tripi-tripi caramba! tripa de mapache
A la tripi-tripi caramba! tripa de mapache
Mi mama no quiere, Canelo, que yo me enborrache
Y si acaso me tomo, Canelo, que sea de tepache
El Canelo murio caramba! y lo van a enterrar
El Canelo murio caramba! y lo van a enterrar
Cuatro zopilotes, Canelo, y una ᧵ila real
Sepultura de oro, Canelo, y caja de cristal
A la tripi-tripi caramba! tripa de venado
A la tripi-tripi caramba! tripa de venado
Mi mama no quiere, Canelo, que coma pescado
Y si acaso como, Canelo, que sea bacalao
Y si acaso como, Canelo, que sea bacalao
A regional style from the northern Veracruz area. Distinguished by the strumming patterns of guitar-type instruments (jarana and huapanguera), use of violin, and falsetto singing. Also typical is the alternation of singers: often the first half of a verse is repeated by a second singer before the last half is completed by the first singer.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gq5uVCKtTZ8&list=PLJk9VXX7_rcnF3hhAVeA3IMeBnIvIkSuG&index=68&t=0s
Mariachi began as a string band style from the Jalisco region of western Mexico. Riding the wave of post-revolution Mexican nationalism (after 1910) and taken up by the mass media in the 1930s, mariachi was adopted as a Pan-Mexican style. The ensemble was enlarged, trumpets were added, and performers began to wear Mexican charro (cowboy) outfits with large sombreros. The distinguishing feature in the ensemble is its violins, trumpets, and guitar-type instruments of various sizes.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9J9YxWNXS4c